Visiting Bonn (Part One) - Sightseeing

This past weekend, I made a trip to the west to visit my friend Greg, who's doing his PhD in Islamic Archeology at the University of Bonn. In addition to seeing him and the city, it was a great opportunity to network with Bonn's Islamic studies department and visit the Annemarie Schimmel Mamluk Kolleg.

Bonn is a city of just over 300,000 in western Germany along the Rhine. Originally a Roman settlement, Bonn played an important role in the Medieval Period as the seat for the Archdiocese of Cologne, which is just to the north. Bonn's main church, the Bonn Minster, was the seat of the Archbishopric of Cologne itself and is one of the oldest extant churches in Germany having been built between the 11th and 13th centuries - this makes it slightly older than our church in Marburg. Later, during in 1770, Bonn also witnessed the birth of one of Europe's greatest composers: Ludwig van Beethoven. While Beethoven was born in Bonn, he spent most of his life and all of his professional career in Vienna.

 In the modern history of Germany, Bonn played a major role by serving as the capital of West Germany during the post-war period from 1949-1990. It was during these years that Bonn's Old City Hall hosted some of the most important political figures of the later 20th century - with many famous images being taken on the Town Hall's beautiful staircase. Even with Germany's capital moving to Berlin following unification, Bonn remains the nation's second capital and is accordingly called a Bundesstadt or federal city. As a result, many international organizations and  several ministries of the federal government retain offices in the city.

Bonn Minster (11th-13th Centuries)

Bonn's famous son - Ludwig van Beethoven

Beethoven's Birthplace

Old Town Hall - Rathaus

Finally, one evening, Greg and I took the train to the south of Bonn to the suburb of Bad Godesberg. Historically a spa town, Bad Godesberg is now home to fairly large Arab population. As such, we were very happy to find a great Syrian restaurant. Afterwards we found a cafe for Turkish coffee that had plastic chairs out on the sidewalk. Needless to say, we were both nostalgic for Cairo. 

Greg enjoying hummus. (Disclaimer: Picture posted without permission of the subject.)

Marburg - Arriving

As many of you already know, I left Cairo this past summer to take a doctoral position at the Philipps-University of Marburg. (I'm not leaving Cairo entirely; I've drunk far too much Nile water to stay away for good.) About two weeks ago, I finally arrived in Marburg and have been settling myself into my new position and home. Now that things have quieted down a bit, I thought it was a good time to give an update and answer some of the questions that various people have been asking me. In addition, a much delayed post on my summer trips to Egypt's National Archives (Dār al-Wathā'iq) will go up later on in the week. 

Since arriving in Marburg two weeks ago, my days have been a whirlwind of activity. Each day for the first week and a half was taken up, almost entirely, by some sort of bureaucratic procedure. I thought I was prepared for the amount of paperwork that I would have to complete, but found the whole process extraordinarily overwhelming. From registering my address, to applying for a residency permit, to the relatively simple tasks of opening a bank account and choosing a health insurance provider, at every step of the process, I have been completely surprised by how many signatures and photocopies are needed to begin a life here. That said, everything is now complete. I have a signed contract, an office, and a library card - life is good.

My office building - CNMS (Center for Near and Middle East Studies

My little slice of academia.

"In praise of books..." - قي مدح الكتب

Beyond getting settled into my new routine, I've also been taking a lot of time walking about the city. Marburg is an absolutely beautiful town of about seventy thousand people. Furthermore, about a third of its residents are students and faculty. Because of this, the town is formally designated an "Universitätsstadt" (university-city). The relationship between the university and the town forms a major theme in Marburg's history. The other narrative being the close ties between the town, the landgraviate of Hesse, and the hospital community centered around the Church of St. Elizabeth of Hungary. In more recent centuries, Marburg has been closely associated with the German Romantic movement of the early nineteenth century, with the university drawing many of the important German literary figures of that time. Among these, were the Brothers Grimm - whose fairy tales have become world famous. 

The town itself sits beneath the landgraviate's castle, where Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli met for the famous Marburg Colloquy in 1529. Along the slopes leading away from the castle, is Marburg's Oberstadt (Upper Town), which is both extremely well preserved and of great historical interest. In this area are many of the city's markets, the old town hall, and the old university building. The university itself was founded in 1527 and was the world's first Protestant university. Now spread throughout the city, the university has an urban campus; our department is located next to Marburg's famous St. Elizabeth Church (Elisabethkirche). 

St. Elizabeth of Hungary married into the langraviate of Thuringia in the thirteenth century. Performing charitable works throughout her life, she left the royal court to found charitable hospitals in Marburg following the death of her husband. During her life and after her death, many miracles were claimed to be associated with her personage, and she was canonized in the mid-thirteenth century. Construction on her famous church by the Teutonic Order started almost immediately afterwards. Now the church stands as one of the earliest Gothic churches outside of France, which is north of the Alps. What follows are some pictures from around the town. Later this week, I'll be posting about my summer trips to the Egyptian National Archives as well as some updates on my research project.

The shops and streets of the Oberstadt.

A statue of St. George in the Oberstadt at the Marketplace (Marktplatz).

The old town hall with a cuckoo clock which crows every hour.  

The Old University (Alte Universität) at the base of the Oberstadt. 

Looking down the street towards St. Elizabeth's Church. This is my morning walk to work.

A view of the church from the backside. This is the view when coming out of my office building.

Looking up at the castle from below.

Lighting the Holy Month of Ramadan - Lanterns

Cairo is an extraordinarily busy city. From morning to night, without stopping, the city buzzes with activity. Every year, however, there is one exception to that rule: Ramadan. During this month, the city and its fasting inhabitants, begin to lose steam in the middle of the afternoon. Just after the evening call to prayer, the whole city becomes very still. For those who have visited Cairo during any other time of the year, this is really a sight to see. For a very short time, everyone across the city is at home breaking their fast. As the meal - called an iftar - concludes, the city comes to life again with a bang, literally. The streets fill with the cacophony of firecrackers, as children celebrate the start of the night. But beyond the fasts and celebrations, perhaps nothing symbolizes the month of Ramadan more than the lantern. 

The lanterns, called fanoos in the singular (فانوس), are hung throughout the city. From balconies, on ropes across alleyways, and in the windows of homes, the city glows with the celebratory light of the fanoos. The word itself was probably adopted from the Coptic/Greek word hanos indicating that the term was likely borrowed from the Coptic Christian population. While this origin is far from certain, neither is the origin of the lantern itself.

One story, which I have heard many times, was that a Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bil-'Amr Allah had forbidden women from leaving their homes. (I intend to explore more of this caliph's famous eccentricities, which were enormous, when I post about his mosque later on.) During his reign, women were only permitted to go outside during Ramadan. Even then, they had to be accompanied by a male member of the family, and a young boy had to walk ahead of the woman with a lantern to announce that she would be passing along the street. It is said, that once al-Hakim's reign ended and women were allowed to go about their affairs in a more relaxed way, the population continued to associate the lantern with Ramadan and began to decorate with them. Whether this is the true story or not, we may never know. But I have a theory of my own...

Most people after breaking their fast, go out and enjoy an evening of fun and celebration. Shortly before sunrise, those fasting eat a heavy meal, called sahuur (سحور), in order to prepare for the coming day's fasting. All of this nighttime activity would have required lighting that probably wasn't as necessary in non-Ramadan months. During the rest of the year, I would imagine that people generally went to bed relatively early in order to wake for morning prayers and begin laboring before the hot afternoon. (Although I can't prove this, there has been quite a lot of work done on the sleep schedules of pre-modern/pre-electricity societies that suggests this idea is likely true. Although some research also suggests a mid-night wake period in which people ate, prayed, or participated in various other activities). In any case, according to my idea, the wide-spread use of the lantern was an almost uniquely Ramadan tradition and thus accordingly became associated with the holy month. Just my thoughts.

As you can see in the pictures below, the Ramadan lamps come in many shapes, materials and colors. Enjoy!

Colorful fanoos outside of a shop. (Photo by author)

(Photo by author)

A personal favorite... A lantern of the homemade variety. (Photo by author)

The last two images are of lanterns inside mosques. While not directly related to Ramadan, mosque lamps help to show the role of light within the context of worship. Now lighted with electricity, they used to hold oil in their bases, which was burnt. The lantern is traditionally inscribed with the Qur'anic sura, Surat al Nur (Light) which reads: 

"Allah is the light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His light is as if there were a niche and within it a lamp: the lamp enclosed in glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the East nor of the West, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His light: Allah doth set forth parables for men: and Allah doth know all things."

Lamps hanging in the entranceway of Sultan al-Ghuri's complex. (Photo by author)

A lighted mosque lamp. (Photo by author)

The Monastery of St. Antony

Because this is my first post on a Coptic topic, it is worth briefly exploring Egypt's Coptic heritage. By tradition, Christianity was brought to Roman Egypt in the middle of the first century by Saint Mark the Evangelist. The church he established in Alexandria was a powerhouse of the early Christian world with such influential theologians as Athenagoras, Clement, Didymus and Origen. The last of these is considered the father of theology. Out of Egypt's early church also came a duo that changed Christianity forever and whose effects are still fundamental to the religion today: Arius and Athanasius. 

In the fourth century, the two church leaders began a dispute over the nature of Christ that still represents a major divide between various churches. Arius professed the idea that within the trinity God the Son was inferior to God the Father and was created by Him. This was contrary to Athanasius's position that God the Son was eternal and one with the Father. This conflict led to the Council of Nicea in 325 CE, which affirmed Athanasius's opinion and led to the writing of the Nicene Creed. Over the next century, further disputes within the greater Christian community occurred. Finally, a dispute between the early churches erupted at the Council of Ephesus in 449 CE. By 451 CE, at the Council of Chalcedon, the Coptic Church separated from the rest of Christendom. 

Since that time, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria has continued to make many contributions to modern Christianity, while at the same time remaining rather obscure to mainstream Christians. This rather quiet anonymity may be due to its isolation as a minority in a majority Muslim population. But regardless, the Coptic Orthodox Church is a major player in Christendom as the largest Christian minority in the Middle East and as a vibrant community in its own right. The church has its own pope, Pope Tawadros II and a large diaspora community. Its ecumenical work in recent years with the Roman Catholic Church and some protestant groups has helped to raise its profile. But at heart, the church is a mystery to most Western viewers. 

Within the practice of Coptic Christianity, there are two major themes: fasting and monastic living. Regarding the first topic, a fast generally requires an abstention from any animal product including milk and eggs, and occasionally, in high fasts, the fast includes fish products as well. Fasts occur on every Wednesday and Friday, regardless of church season, and before and during various holidays throughout the year. If counted altogether, a devout Copt fasts more than half of the days of the year.

The other point around which the church focuses is on its monastic communities. Many Coptic families make trips to monasteries around Egypt as their major use of vacation time. Indeed, this is encouraged by the churches and trips are frequently organized to travel to monasteries throughout the country. Egypt's tradition of Christian monasticism is the oldest in the world and it was in these monasteries that many of the church's traditions and beliefs were kept alive through many centuries of invasions and later during Muslim majority rule. So let's see where it all began, the world's first Christian monastery: the Monastery of Saint Antony (Anthony) the Great.

The Monastery of St. Antony (cc. 4th Century)

On the gate to the monastery. (Photo by author)

Of course, the details of the story of St. Antony's life are based mostly in hearsay and tradition taken with a lot of faith. That said, St. Antony is supposed to have been born in the area of Beni Suef to a wealthy landholder around 251 CE. Orphaned in his teenaged years and left a small fortune, Antony gave up his wealth at the age of 18 after having read the Bible's repudiations of money and materialism. Shortly thereafter, St. Antony settled himself in the Eastern Desert near the Red Sea in the same area as another hermit, St. Paul. Overtime other Christians throughout Egypt having heard of Antony's asceticism and faith, followed in his footsteps. Soon, a small community developed around him. This was to become the world's first group of monks - the world's first Christian monastery. 

With time, however, the solitude that Antony had sought disappeared as the monastic community continued to grow. Seeking more quietude and seclusion, St. Antony moved into a cave in the mountains overlooking the fraternity of monks below. It was in this cave that he would spend the last 40 years of his 105 year life. 

This new form of devotion and faith, monasticism, quickly spread throughout Egypt and the Byzantine world. Within one hundred years, monasteries could be found in Italy and France; and shortly thereafter, icons of St. Anthony of Egypt were found as far away as Ireland. Most people cannot imagine traditional Christianity without monks and nuns, but it all started with one man in the Eastern Deserts of Egypt.

Below are a collection of photos from the Monastery of St. Antony. Enjoy!

The long stairway to the cave where St. Antony spent his last forty years.  If you look carefully on the upper-right side, you can see the end point. (Photo by author)

Close-up of the landing at the cave of St. Antony. (Photo by author)

St. Antony's cave with pilgrims at the entrance. (Photo by author)

Looking down at the monastery from the cave. The two gates frame the entranceway. (Photo by author)

Another view of the monastery with the desert beyond. (Photo by author)

This drawbridge was the only access to the monastery's keep, which was located in the middle of the monastery complex. During the 8th and 9th centuries, Bedouin raiders attacked the monastery frequently. The drawbridge allowed the monks to hide inside the keep and have relative protection from the desert raiders. (Photo by author)

The monks of the monastery still eat around this table, continuing a centuries' old tradition. (Photo by author)

Icons inside the Church of St. Antony within the monastery complex. Recently restored with help from Italy, some of the icons are supposed to date to the 5th century. (Photo by author)

A fresco representing the gospel writers: St. Matthew (the winged man) and St. Mark (the winged lion). (Photo by author)

Detail of the other side of the same fresco representing the two other gospel writers: St. Luke (winged ox) and St. John (winged eagle). (Photo by author)

Looking towards the altar and the iconostasis (icon wall separating the congregation from the main altar). The white hanging orbs are ostrich eggs. Present in all Coptic churches, they represent the resurrection and rebirth in Christ. (Photo by author)

Looking down the main avenue through the monastery with monks' quarters on both sides. (Photo by author)

Sources:

Jill Kamel, Christianity in the Land of the Pharaohs: The Coptic Orthodox Church, (Cairo: American University in Cairo, 2002). 

The Mosque of Ahmed Ibn Tulun

A few years ago, I started a blog about the history and culture of Egypt - especially with regards to medieval Cairo. My posts covered topics ranging from Ramadan lanterns to mosques visits. Soon, I'll be shutting down the older blog, on which I haven't posted in a long time, and my goal is to transfer over as much of the relevant content to this new blog as possible. Today, I'm starting with a post I wrote about the Ahmed Ibn Tulun Mosque in the Sayyida Zaynab neighborhood. In the coming weeks, look for more of these types of posts in addition to updates on my PhD research. After I transfer over everything I think is relevant, I'll start creating some new, similar content. 

Mosque of Ahmed Ibn Tulun 263-265AH/876-879CE

One of the largest and most impressive mosques in Cairo also happens to be the oldest. Well, at least the oldest in roughly its original form (the mosque of 'Amr ibn al-As is older by about 200 years, but has been modified significantly over the centuries). 

An aerial of the Mosque of Ahmed Ibn Tulun. (Photo from archnet.org)

In order to understand the architectural and historical significance of Ibn Tulun's mosque, we have to first see how it fits into the bigger picture of its historical context. When Ibn Tulun came to Egypt in 868, the 'Abbasid dynasty reigned in Baghdad. The 'Abbasids (750–1258CE) based their claims to legitimacy on descent from the Prophet Muhammad through his uncle 'Abbas. Their rule was marked by decadence and a rise in court culture, influenced greatly by their incorporation of Persian traditions, and it has often been described as the "Golden Age" or the classical period. 

Riots in Baghdad in 836, agitated by soldiers, caused the caliph al-Mu'atassim to move the court out of Baghdad and to found a new city, Samarra. Greatly expanded by the caliph Mutawakkil; he built the Great Samarra Mosque, which served as the city's centerpiece and became an inspiration for Ibn Tulun, as we shall see. Financial troubles and anarchy in Samarra following the death of Mutawakkil, resulted in his successor, al-Mu’tazz, granting the revenues of the provinces to pay the various Turkish leaders of his armies. In 868, al-Mu’tazz granted Egypt to Bayikbak, who appointed Ahmed Ibn Tulun, his stepson, to govern the province and oversee the collection and delivery of its revenue. When Ibn Tulun arrived in Egypt, conflict arose with the pre-existing financial administrator, Ibn al-Mudabbir. Trouble in Syria and Palestine allowed Ibn Tulun to raise his own revenue and army and march at the service of the caliph. As a result, al-Mudabbir was marginalized and Ibn Tulun became powerful in a way previously unprecedented for a provincial governor. While still pledging allegiance to the caliph in Baghdad, he was given the ability to appoint a successor as governor, his son. Making the governorship both quasi-independent and hereditary. The dynasty is often referred to as the Tulunids.

Their capital city, ‘Abbasid in style, was modeled after Samarra and named al-Qata’i (the Quarters). It was located in what is now the Sayyida Zaynab neighborhood of Cairo and what was then just north-east of the original Arab settlement Fustat. The city was intended solely for the court; the general public continued to live in Fustat. At the center of his new city, Ibn Tulun built his mosque.

When you enter the mosque, or see it from above (I've had this privilege several times when landing at Cairo airport from the south), the first thing that strikes you is its size. Covering six and a half acres, the mosque was built large enough that Ibn Tulun's entire army could fit inside for Friday prayers. Its layout being modeled on that of the Great Mosque of Mutawakkil in Samara, even the building technique and style was inspired by its 'Abbasid counterpart. 

In entering the mosque from the street, you first come into the ziyada or addition (literally "extra"). This overflow area served to separate the mosque from the street and prevented market stalls from being attached to the mosque directly. 

The ziyada; the street entrances are to the right; the mosque entrances are on the left. (Photo from archnet.org)

Once you actually enter the mosque, the rows and rows of columns surrounding the center courtyard are impressive. They were made using stamped, wet plaster; the same technique as used in Samarra.

Notice the stamped plaster around the archways. (Photo by author)

Another closer view of the archways. (Photo from archnet.org)

Another important feature of any mosque, and of particular interest in Ibn Tulun, is the mihrab. This indentation on the qibla (the direction of Mecca) wall demarcates the actual direction towards which worshipers are to direct their prayers. The mihrab of Ibn Tulun is particularly interesting because it is mostly in its original form, and its hood contains wood that dates to the time of the mosque's construction. Legend has it that this wood was from Noah's Ark. Next to the mihrab is the minbar which is the "pulpit" of the mosque. 

The mihrab. Notice the wood in the hood (the top part of the arch-like enclave).  (Photo from archnet.org)

The minbar, or pulpit, with the mihrab along the left side of the picture. (Photo from archnet.org)

The courtyard of the mosque is one of its most impressive features. Built so large as to hold the Ibn Tulun's entire military entourage, the courtyard's proportions are staggering. In its center is a domed structure used for ablution before prayer. It is not an original part of the mosque. The fountain was constructed and parts of the minaret were reconstructed, following earthquake damage, by Sultan Lagan in the Mamluk period. The ablution space is particularly Mamluk in style. It features a large dome, red and white striping, and maqarnas (stalactite-looking carvings) on the pendentives (joints) of the dome. The minaret, too, features much reconstruction. Originally a complete spiral, inspired by the minaret of the Great Mosque of Mutawakkil in Samarra, the base is now square as a result of Sultan Lagan's attempts to sure up its foundation. Also, the mubakhara top is also a later addition; probably an attempt by Sultan Lagan to finish the minaret in an earlier style. Unfortunately, he was off by a century; the mubakhara was a hallmark of the Fatimids, who ruled a century after Ibn Tulun.  

The ablution fountain, courtyard, and minaret. (Photo by author)

Close-up of the minaret. (Photo by author)

A climb to the top of the minaret of Ibn Tulun gives one of the most rewarding sights in Cairo: a 360 degree view of the city, with prominent views of the Citadel. Between its views and its history, the Mosque of Ahmed ibn Tulun is a must see in a visit to Cairo and an essential mosque to the story of the city. 

Sources: 

Hugh Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates, (Great Britain: Pearson Longman, 2004). 

------, When Baghdad Ruled the Muslim World, (Cambridge: Da Capo Press 2006).

Caroline Williams, Islamic Monuments of Cairo: The Practical Guide, (Cairo: AUC Press, 2008).